Poppers Theory Of Falsifiability And Kuhns Theory Of Paradigms Philosophy Essay

Poppers Theory Of Falsifi king And Kuhns Theory Of Paradigms Philosophy EssayComp ar and severalize Poppers Theory of Falsifiability and Kuhns Theory of Paradigms. What argon the implications of each for the conduct of affable Science?Poppers scheme of falsifiability and Kuhns speculation of simulacrums put one across some significant differences, although they twain argue for falsification as the oecumenical question method for all scientific disciplines. Accordingly, the consequences for the approach in the Social Sciences differ as well. The overall description of this essay will be that Poppers surmise give ups a more aim-oriented investigate, which doer that one has (theoretically) the chance to solve kindly problems intentionally. The scientist has the opportunity to gather design fellowship to the highest degree the equally design friendly human race. In Kuhns view this is non come-at-able, since any seek and knowledge is subjective, it is influenced by the scientists paradigm. b atomic number 18ly here, a scientist can interpret social behaviour on a deep scale and from deep down a specific world view, a way that is non open for Popper. The opportunity to find the truth about social domain comes at the outgo of explanatory power.In order to show these implications it is necessary to evince out the aspects of both theories applicable for this analysis, contrasting their common starting point and highlighting the differences that are substantial for the analysis of their application in the Social Sciences.Possibilities and Limits for Scientists in Kuhns and Poppers TheoriesThe relevant aspects for this comparison of Poppers and Kuhns theories are best displayed if they are contrasted within the categories of ontology, epistemology and methodology. Since both of the theories are highly comprehensive, a more detailed division would probably not do them safeice. yet these broad categories allow a sufficient contrast for the proposed argument and lead up to the necessary insights about the notions of scientific submit that the theorists concord respectively.For Popper, an objective realness exists that can be observed (Popper 1963 226). As a scientist with the proper understanding of science though it is never possible to be absolutely certain that one has definitely found this reality, this absolute truth (Popper 2002 24). virtually of the scientific statements are relative they constitute hypotheses, and are thereof by their very form not expressions of absolute truth (Popper 1962 221). Likewise, Kuhn is convinced of the existence of an objective reality, a truth, but unlike Popper he does not believe in the possibility to describe it, to discover it at all. Any knowledge about this reality is subjective, is shaped by the social context, by the mortal socialisation of the scientist (Kuhn 1963 120). It is already at this point that Kuhns idea of paradigms has to be introduced, which emphasizes t he centrality of this notion for the entire theory. Kuhns paradigm is a vague concept it can best be described as covering a range of factors in scientific development including or someway involving laws and theories, models, standards, and methods (both theoretical and instrumental), vague intuitions, explicit or implicit metaphysical beliefs (or prejudices). In short, anything that allows science to accomplish anything can be a part of (or somehow complex in) a paradigm. (Shapere 1980 29) It is a deeply psychological concept with a highly unconscious nature which explains the difficulty defining it, let alone in analyzing its contact on science. For Kuhn, these paradigms are the beginning of what he calls normal science (Kuhn 1963 42f.). It is exclusively with such(prenominal) a paradigm that a scientist has enough fundamental orientation in his discipline to begin real scientific work (Kuhn 1963 79). It cannot be evince enough that the scientists are unaware of having these paradigms. It is not something that they by choice chose, rather it is something they acquired through a process of socialization (Kuhn 1963 47f.). This clearly describes the communal nature of a paradigm (original italics, Eckberg and Hill 1980 122). Therefore, a scientist will always see the objective reality through the subjective glasses of his paradigm.As to the epistemology, the pure method of falsification faces the problem of an infinite regress if falsification is applied to every scientific statement, the search would not lead anywhere. Popper and Kuhn both carry on the tradition of science as it has been established by Positivism. Nevertheless, they are alike aware of the question about theory-neutrality in research and the said problem of infinite regress, but they give different answers to this dilemma. Popper introduces the notion of background knowledge (Popper 2002 25), which is such basic knowledge without which the scientist would not be able to conduct resear ch in his discipline. Nevertheless, it is as provisional as any knowledge, and is potentially falsifiable just as any scientific statement that deserves the name (Popper 2002 65). The basic knowledge is therefore an individual, subjective choice made by the scientist, but it is a deliberate and conscious one (Lakatos 1970 105 Popper 2002 85 Popper 1963 245) which cannot be said about the paradigm. This does equally provide a useful solution to the problem of an infinite falsification, but one that is adopted unconsciously, since it is linked so nastyly to the actual conception of reality shared by the scientific community. A deliberate commitment to basic knowledge contrasts an involuntary commitment to a paradigm (Kuhn 1963 97). In this regard, the incommensurability of paradigms has to be mentioned (Smith 1998 195 Lakatos 1970 93). Paradigms can be compared to a religious belief held by scientists, and its psychological nature does not allow holding dickens paradigms simultaneo usly (Keat and Urry 1982 62 Kuhn 1963 93 151). It is no exaggeration that the process of a paradigm change is described as revolutionary (Kuhn 1963 91ff.). We therefore have the progeny of a socialization process against an individual, conscious choice. Kuhn as well as emphasize the intimate and inevitable entanglement of scientific observation with scientific theory (Kuhn 1970 2). But whereas in Poppers belief this entanglement can be influenced by the scientist, it is determined and beyond any deliberate change intended by an individual in Kuhns world.With regard to the methodology, Popper emphasizes the logic of science, that science and specifically social science is coiffured by the chosen method, and not by its results (Popper 1962 218). Falsification is applied to the theory or rather the hypotheses to be tested, not to the background knowledge (for the time being). The choice is subjective (and is therefore reflecting values), but it is deliberate and rational and therefo re congenial. In Kuhns theory however, paradigms provide the research frame, and falsification works within it but is never applied to this frame (Kuhn 1963 80). Successful falsification provides problems to be solved within the paradigm they are like pieces to a puzzle which is in its entirety unknown (Wolin 1980 170). According to Kuhn, there is no logic of science (Shapere1980 30), only variant within a given paradigm is possible. If there is no paradigm, the scientists work on establishing one, so as to start with normal science. During a crisis that leads to a paradigm change, contradicting facts and the new paradigm are developed simultaneously (Kuhn 1963 96, 140 Kuhn 1970 10). The results of such a falsification process within the paradigm therefore is exactly what Popper calls the sociology of knowledge (Popper 1962 220), a socially constructed and determined knowledge, precisely what he tries to evade.These aspects of ontology, epistemology and methodology lead to the not ions about the possible set ahead that science can achieve. For Popper, knowledge is cumulative, since falsification is in any case a method that helps to refine theories (Popper 2002 24). Whether it is the adjustment or re readiness of a theory after a successful falsification, or the resistance of a theory to the tests, both results are considered to be an improvement (Popper 1963 245). Although the theory in the latter case might not be true, it is scientifically superior to those already falsified. The continuous formulation and rejection of theories as well as the work on new problems with reformulated theories is all considered to be a (cumulative) development of knowledge (Popper 1963 215, 222 Popper 1962 221). For Kuhn on the other hand, there is no general establish of cumulative knowledge, only a change of paradigms over time (Kuhn 1963 156). New paradigms are adopted because the scientific community considers it to have great potential for the new (albeit only vague, in their entirety unknown) problems to be solved. They have an essentially rational factor, and seem to be more useful for future research (Keat and Urry 1982 169). But paradigms are exclusive, not derived from one another (Smith 1998 195). Since knowledge is so closely connected to them, any growth of knowledge cannot objectively be find out (Kuhn 1970 20f.). At the most, a form of proceed can be observed within the workings of normal science, during the process of puzzle-solving (Dogan 2001 11025). But there is no progress in the sense of coming closer to the truth (Keat and Urry 1982 169).Different Connections between Theory and Observation Consequences for the Social SciencesThis contrast highlights the most important aspects of Kuhns and Poppers theories that are relevant to analyze the consequences that both approaches have for the Social Sciences respectively. Both imply individual restrictions as well as possibilities for them and in Poppers case the theory imposes redden a normative duty on the scientist.He argues for a unity of science concerning the methods, which means that the procedure of formulating hypotheses and subjecting them to tests of falsification should be applied in the Social Sciences just as in any other (Stokes 1997 58). It is a method that best supports the aim of objective research, savouring to prevent the scientist from adopting a narrow, selective perception that only discerns proofs for the own theory but not its failures. All Science is fundamentally characterized by the method applied (Popper 2002 29). But for Popper, Social Science specifically should be characterized by something else by the ethical awareness every research project ought to have (Stokes 1997 69). Before this is explained in greater detail however, it must be emphasized that such a normative component is of course not derivable from the objective facts describing Poppers theory. No normative responsibility can be derived from an actual condition. But Po ppers theory allows it, and the consequences from his falsificationist approach for the Social Sciences are largely dominated by this obligation. Apart from the question whether one agrees with him, his argument also points out the consequences for the Social Sciences and his theory in general, and it is an essential part of his approach.Popper demands a fundamentally practical orientation in the Social Sciences, any research project should contribute to the solution of social problems of their time. He also argues for more ethical awareness in the Social Sciences in this case he is a child of his time. This attitude comes from experiences with totalitarianism and fascism (Stokes 1997 57). But what is important in this context is that Popper therefore agues for the individual influence of scientific as well as extra-scientific values His argument is that the individual choice of the scientist does not only expand on values such as scientific precision or intersubjectivity of researc h findings, as it is reflected by the choice for falsification as a method and by the choice for falsifiable, but for now untested background knowledge. It also applies to the scientists aims, to the problems he chooses to investigate. Broadly speaking, any research should eventually try to reduce human suffering (Stokes 1997 60).Even if one does not agree with Poppers demand here, it highlights the opportunities open to a scientists according to his theory. Knowledge is cumulative, so the scientist has the possibility to engineer a conscious part in this accumulation of knowledge about the (objective) social reality (Popper 1962 221). This objective reality can be the focus of research since it is possible to gather knowledge about it. Even the most fundamental assumptions or convictions, the background knowledge, can be questioned and altered. Any social influence on our knowledge can eventually be evaded, indirectly, by the choice of falsification as a method and by unconvention al or for its time strange choice of research topics. The scientist has not only the opportunity to discover the objective social reality, he can (and in Poppers view must) also endeavour to define the social problems of his time and propose solutions for it.This emphasis on the objective social reality as the focus and the denial of any socially constructed limits of the research has even further implications. There are abstract as well as tangible objects in Social Science. Its scientists are engaged in analyzing social problems, general phenomenons or dynamics, things that have an undeniably abstract nature. On the other hand though it is the individual who is identified as the causal unity of these phenomenons, it is the objective, observable reality which has to be the center for any hypotheses or theory that fulfills the criteria of falsifiability. A theory that has a holistic character and applies to the abstract objects of social reality itself cannot meet the standards for intersubjective testing, for an audition to be repeated and tested over and over again (Popper 1962 218). So while the eventual aim is of course to understand the dynamics and causes of abstract constructs in social reality, its research is curb to the individual. On the one hand, Poppers scientist can therefore consciously choose his object of research, can be specifically aim-oriented, and is therefore not limited to a purely explanatory role. On the other hand, it is impossible for him to consciously work within a specific, personal belief about the social reality that he never questions during his research (Popper 1962 212). Explanations within the belief systems like Marxism or elitism that intend to explain social reality within this frame are therefore not possible, since these beliefs do not fulfill the standards of permissible background knowledge.A last remark has to be made on Poppers view about the Social Sciences. It is exactly against the embraced dangers of such so cial frames that he argues for the publicity of Science (Stokes 1997 74 Popper 1962 217f.). To complete the standards of critical research, to guarantee that intersubjectivity and falsifiability are adhered to the results (and the method) of research have to be published. The critical appraisal by other scientists is needed to establish the highest possible objectivity.The strength of Poppers approach lies therefore in the fact that the scientist has more impeccant will in choosing his objectives, and that this choice also implies a normative choice. This is the consequence of Poppers particular connection between theory and observation, that science is not value-free, neither on the level of aims nor when it comes to its method, but these values are acceptable as long as they are a conscious choice. For a scientist in Kuhns approach though this choice is made for him by the paradigm. In the case that there is no paradigm yet, scientists have not even entered the stage of real scie ntific progress of their discipline they have not yet started with normal science (Kuhn 1963 79). According to Kuhn, this is exactly the case for the Social Sciences (Kuhn 1970 6 Wolin 1980 169). But even if the Social Sciences had already acquired a paradigm in Kuhns definition, such aim-oriented research like Popper proposes it would not be possible. The scientist would of course have an objective for his research, but he cannot claim to have chosen it objectively, let alone having done so out of the normative conviction to ultimately discover and evade any social aspect to his research and knowledge. This social influence that the scientist is unaware of is but the starting point for real research, also in the Social Sciences.Some consider the different rails within Social Sciences as paradigms, although this contradicts the unconscious character of a paradigm according to Kuhns interpretation. It is argued that overarching concepts such as paradigms built on more solid ground i n the indwelling sciences than in the social sciences, because in the former truth is universal, in the latter, contextual. (Dogan 2001 11026) If paradigms are going to appear in the Social Sciences, they will only be cognise in the narrow form of different schools that are not characterized by incommensurability, but by mutual avoidance (Dogan 2001 11024). Even though this idea does not realize all characteristics of a paradigm, its example is most useful here. The Scientist does of course not enjoy the freedom that he has in Poppers view. He is exposed to the norms of his school and he has to realize that even an approach that he considers to be most revolutionary and unconventional is probably still within the boundaries of this school. For the rare case that such deviant behavior should happen despite the deep socialization of the individual scientist, then the paradigmatic community will not tolerate it and most possible simply ignore his findings (Wolin 1980 167f.). It is n ot possible for an individual to deliberately convince all the members of this specific attitude to change it radically. Such change is incremental and therefore happens only gradually (Wolin 1980 175).But then he can explain the social reality from this particular point or belief system. He has possibilities for account that are unavailable for a scientist in Poppers theory. It is not without coincidence that Marxism is considered to be such a powerful school in Social Science that it comes close to what Kuhn describes as a paradigm (Dogan 2001 11026), a school that is given as one of the typical examples (Popper 1962 212) of the social bias and subjectivity that has to be avoided according to Popper. Intersubjectivity is a therefore an important value for Kuhn as well as for Popper, but whereas this scientific value only applies within the paradigmatic community for Kuhn, for Popper it is precisely the means to evade such influence.The social reality that is always perceived subj ectively can therefore be thoroughly explained and described from within these world views, and the progress scientists make with this kind of research is relatively substantial, since they can accept more easily the findings of their colleagues. They can interpret behavior, specific social rules, and are not restricted to describe individual behavior like Popper. But this advantage in explaining social phenomena therefore comes at the price of aim-oriented research such as it is possible in Poppers view. The puzzle-solving process during normal science is after all defined by the fact that the bigger picture of the puzzle is unknown (Wolin 1980 170). Accepting a paradigm and work within its boundaries is compared to a kind of religious change (Lakatos 1970 93). The scientist cannot make its structures visible, not on purpose at least. He has to rely on the intangible dynamic that characterizes normal science. He has only the possibility to choose scientific values, and even that on ly to a limited extent (Kuhn 1963 17). He also has to accept that there are possibly some social problems or facts of the objective social reality that does, after all, exist that he does not perceive at all due to his paradigm. And if the Social Science is truly without a paradigm so far, the stage of normal research where a form of progress is finally possible has not even begun.ConclusionBoth Poppers theory of falsification and Kuhns theory of paradigms assume the existence of an objective social reality and are convinced of the merits of falsification as the acceptable method for its research. They are equally considering the problem of theory neutrality in the Social Sciences as well as continuing the tradition of Positivism that does not see a fundamental difference for science within its different disciplines. Nevertheless, Kuhn and Popper differ in their opinions about the acceptable solution to this question about theory-neutrality, about the relation between theory and o bservation. Poppers ontology and epistemology demand potential falsifiability for all scientific statements in order to discover this objective truth and evade the pitfalls of the subjective bias. What he considers to be the absolute fall of science is only its beginning in Kuhns view. Only paradigms, unconscious social frameworks, allow progressive research, and any knowledge about reality must be subjective. The consequences of Poppers view for Social Sciences in particular consist in the possibility to deliberately work on the social problems of the time, and in the conviction that the any social fact can eventually be discovered. It comes at a reduced ability to explain social phenomena holistically and from within a specific worldview that cannot be operationalised into falsifiable hypotheses. This is exactly what a researcher in Kuhns world can do, albeit at the expense of the said advantages Poppers scientist has.